The drug cannabis is produced from parts of the cannabis plant, primarily the cured flowers and gathered trichomes of the female plant. The major active chemical compound tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly referred to as THC, has psychoactive and medicinal effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. Cannabis has been consumed by humans for thousands of years; in the 20th century there was an upswing in the use of cannabis for recreational and religious purposes.
The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became illegal in many parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, while some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition, others have reduced the priority of enforcement to the point of de facto legality. Cannabis remains illegal in the vast majority of the world's countries.
Evidence of the smoking of cannabis can be found as far back as the Neolithic age, where charred hemp seeds were found in a ritual brazier at a burial site in present day Romania[1] . The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient Hindus. It was called ganjika in Sanskrit (ganja in modern Indian languages).[2] According to legend, Shiva, the destructive aspect of the Hindu trinity, told his disciples to revere the plant. The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis. It has also been identified with a number of other plants and a mushroom, Amanita muscaria, so the involvement of cannabis cannot be definitively quantified.
Interesting to note is the similar use of cannabis among the citizens of the Persian Empire, who would partake in the ceremonial burning of massive cannibis bonfires, directly exposing themselves and neighboring tribes to the billowing fumes, oftentimes for over 24 hours [Source: Abu Usaybia, Uyunu al-Anba fi Tabaquat al-Atibba, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965.] The ceremony was known as the booz-rooz. (Although we know that rooz is the Persian word for "day", the meaning of "booz" is for now lost to history.)
Cannabis was also known to the Scythians, as well as to the Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai - "those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers in order to induce trances. The cult of Dionysus, which is believed to have originated in Thrace, is also believed to have inhaled cannabis smoke.
Main article: Medical cannabis
Medically, cannabis is most often used as an appetite stimulant and pain reliever for certain terminal illnesses such as cancer and AIDS. In addition, a new study has reported that the primary chemical in cannabis-THC- does not, in fact, cause lung cancer, but can help to reduce.[citation needed] As it happens, it also contains a certain protective effect.[citation needed] The THC actually promotes the death and RE-growth of lung cells, and so, can often be beneficial in lung cancer patients.[citation needed] As a matter of fact, it is a generally accepted misconception that prescription pot is prescribed as a pain killer.[citation needed] It is actually prescribed in an effort to rebuild the infected lungs.[citation needed] It is used to relieve certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, migraine and bipolar disorder, and is known to lower intraocular pressure in the treatment of glaucoma. It has also been found to relieve nausea for chemotherapy patients. The medical use of cannabis is politically controversial, but it is sometimes recommended informally by physicians. A synthetic version of the major active chemical in cannabis, THC, is available in many countries in the form of a pill as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol). THC has also been found to reduce arterial blockages[3]. A sublingual spray derived from an extract of cannabis has also been approved for treatment of multiple sclerosis in Canada as the prescription drug Sativex [4] - this drug may now be legally imported into the United Kingdom and Spain on prescription.[5]
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United States
Eleven states[6] in the United States passed laws allowing cannabis possession and consumption for medical purposes; however, the Supreme Court of the United States in Gonzales v. Raich ruled that the listing of cannabis as a Schedule I controlled substance was constitutional, and that possession for any reason other than approved medical research was therefore illegal under federal law. This remained consistent with their ruling in United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers Cooperative, an 8-0 decision stating that there is no exception as a Schedule I drug for people to use cannabis for medical purposes.[7] This creates an interesting tension between state and federal laws.[8] According to The Guardian, Cannabis is now the United States's number one cash crop.
Some local city governments in the United States have noted that cannabis offenses are already an incredibly low priority for law enforcement, and have passed measures either decriminalizing small amounts of marijuana, or simply instructing local authorities to stop enforcing marijuana laws for small-time users. The city of Denver, Colorado, for instance, passed a law in 2006 which allows residents to legally possess up to an ounce of marijuana for personal use. Other notable locales include the city of West Hollywood, California, which has instructed local authorities to stop enforcing marijuana laws for those who use only small quantities in their own homes; and the state of Alaska, which allows residents to legally possess up to one ounce for personal use, recently reduced from four ounces
Main article: Cannabis (drug) cultivation
Advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the diversity and potency of cannabis strains since 1970, and these strains are now widely smoked all over the world. These advances are known as the sinsemilla techniques of production; sinsemilla, Spanish for without seed, are the dried, seedless female flowers of cannabis plants which have been grown in the absence of males to ensure no pollination takes place. Because THC potency and production drops off once pollination takes place, various techniques such as seed banks, hydroponics, cloning, lighting techniques, and the sea of green method have been utilized, in part as a response to prohibition enforcement efforts which have made outdoor cultivation more risky; thus, efficient indoor cultivation has become more common. These same advances have led to fewer seeds being present in cannabis currently than were present 20 years ago.
The increases in potency—and ramifications thereof—have been exaggerated by many opponents of cannabis use both in and out of government. In the United States, government advertisements encourage parents to disregard their own experience with cannabis when speaking to their children, on the premise that pot today is significantly stronger and thus more dangerous than that which they themselves might have smoked in the past.[9] In a general pattern of proposing reverses in cannabis rescheduling, the UK government is considering scheduling stronger cannabis (skunk, in local parlance) as a separate, more restricted substance.
Many cannabis proponents disagree vehemently, reasoning that as one must smoke less cannabis to achieve the same effect, it actually is safer and less potentially carcinogenic in the long run than that which was smoked in earlier times.
Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms:
Marijuana or buds, the resin gland-rich flowering tops of female plants.
Sinsemilla or sensemillia, flowering tops which are free of seeds as a result of being grown in a pollen-free environment. Since no plant energy can go into seed formation, this version is higher in psychoactive components.
Kief or kif, a powder containing the resin glands (glandular trichomes, often incorrectly called "crystals" or "pollen"). It is produced by sifting marijuana and leaves.
Hashish, a concentrated resin made from pressing kif into blocks.
Charas, produced by hand-rubbing the resin from the resin gland-rich parts of the plant. Often thin dark rectangular pieces.
Bhang, prepared by the wet grinding of the leaves of the plant and used as a drink.
Hash oil, resulting from extraction or distillation of THC-rich parts of the plant.
Resin, when smoked through a pipe all of the above will cause black goo to create a film on the sides or collect in certain nooks depending on its shape. The black goo is a formation of tar in the pipe. This can be collected and resmoked. This method is commonly referred to as scraping.
Cannabutter is method used for in which marijuana prepared to be ingested and consumed. Highly potent, marijuana is simmered in a high proportion of butter, which under slow heat, extracts THC from the buds and is absorbed by the fat from the butter. After the solution is strained, the contents left is called canna-butter. Very strong and once consumed, effects can include hallucinations, and a high feeling of euphoria, and has pyschoactive effects which lasts longer than any other forms of consumption. Canna-butter can be used to prepare dishes of a numerous variety of foods such as, brownies, cookies, rice crispie treats, and even spaghetti.
Butane hash oil or Butane Honey Oil or BHO, which is also known under the disguising name 'budder', is a cannabis extract that is over 99% pure THC. Its extraction method is based on 'Supercritical Fluid Extraction'. Best smoked using hot knives or a 'budder kit'. It is the strongest and lightest cannabis extract available, yeilding a high far superior to any other form of cannabis.
Minimally potent leaves and detritus, called shake, brush, bush or leaf.
There are also four recognized subspecies of Cannabis. These include Cannabis sativa sativa, Cannabis sativa indica, Cannabis sativa rasta, and Cannabis sativa ruderalis, the last containing much less THC and generally not used as a psychoactive substance
Main article: Methods of smoking cannabis
There are several methods of smoking cannabis. The most popular include the spliff or joint, the bong, the bubbler, and the pipe.
To create a joint, cannabis is rolled up into a cigarette, using a rolling paper. Cannabis cigars, or blunts, can also be created by using the wrapper of a standard cigar. Commercial 'blunt wraps' made out of processed tobacco leaves may also be used.
A bong is a water-pipe through which cannabis smoke is filtered. Variants include the gravity bong, which has a "bowl" containing marijuana placed atop a water bottle or similar container with the bottom removed. The container is submerged in a bucket of water almost up to its top, and then the bowl is screwed or stuck into place. Then the pot is lit and the water bottle is slowly raised, so that the lack of air pressure draws smoke into the bottle. Then the bowl is quickly removed and the smoke is inhaled through the top of the bottle while simultaneously pushing the bottle downward, forcing the smoke into the lungs at pressure; hence gravity bong. Smoking from a gravity bong will enable the user to achieve the same level of highness faster than most other methods of smoking. Bongs originated from hookahs, which were the original Indian hashish-smoking implements. Hookahs have their bowls on top, and usually have several hoses emanating from the sides, so that more than one person can smoke at a time. Today's glass bongs found in head shops almost universally consist of blown glass tubes with the bowls coming out of their sides.
Bubblers are hybrids between bongs and pipes. Made of blown glass, they resemble pipes with bulbous bottoms containing a small amount of water. The smoke is drawn through the water just as with bongs.
Pipes are usually made of blown glass, wood, stone, or non-reactive metals. Metal pipes are often made of interchangeable pieces. Some pipes, usually those made of glass, have a carburetor, colloquially referred to as a carb, choke, rush or shotgun which is covered for suction then released for inhalation. Occasionally users may make pipes from soda cans, aluminum foil, small plumbing fittings, or crisp fruits or vegetables.
A "shotgun", or "super" is a specialized way of smoking joints involving two people. One person takes a hit then puts the joint or blunt ember first into his mouth. Another person then places his mouth over the front end, and first person exhales through the joint, blowing both his smoke and the joint’s smoke into the other person’s mouth. More efficient variations of shotgunning involve both members curling their hands to form a 'shotgun' chamber. Simultaneous exhaling by one member and inhaling by the other member will effectively transfer smoke between the two people. Many consider this to be a very intimate practice.
A "one-hitter" is a device that looks similar to a cigarette. Seedless, stemless cannabis buds are loaded into a compartment in a container known as a dugout. A hitter, contained in another compartment, is loaded and lit. This is repeated for each hit. This method is also efficient in titrating the exact dose desired.
Tobacco as a burning aid
Some users prefer to mix or layer tobacco with their cannabis when rolling joints, and less commonly when using a pipe or bong. It is argued that this helps the slower-burning cannabis to stay lit and burn evenly. Critics argue that this ruins the taste of the cannabis smoke, and even that it poses a further health risk. Tobacco use is far more common in Europe than in North America. Moroccans and other traditionally or historically cannabis-using peoples smoke cannabis in combination with tobacco. For some, home-grown tobacco (illegal in many countries) adds to the intoxicating effect of the cannabis. European and other western tobacco users usually use hand rolling tobacco or that obtained by dismantling cigarettes. Many Carribean smokers add a specially grown tobacco (known as Fonta) into their spliffs to both conserve their ganja and increase the high. [citation needed]
Note: The use of tobacco in smoking marijuana is often known as "batching", and the tobacco portion of finely ground or chopped marijuana and tobacco is can be referred to simply as "batch", or batch can refer to the whole mixture. In Australia the preferred term for mixing tobacco with marijuana is called "spinning", the tobacco being referred to as "spinner" and the adjective describing the mixture "spun".
Cannabis may be orally consumed by blending it with ethanol or lipids. With this method, some claim that more cannabis must be used, though considering that the effects of oral consumption are different from those of inhalation, others may claim that less is required. The effects of the drug take longer to begin, but last longer and may be perceived as more physical rather than mental, though there are claims to the contrary. A dose of oral cannabis is often considered to give a stronger experience than the equivalent dose of smoked cannabis. A common belief holds that while smoked cannabis has a large volume exhaled, or simply burned, without consumption, ingested cannabis has 100% consumption, an assertion which cannot be confirmed without objective analysis. It is thought that the active component of cannabis, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive 11-hydroxy-THC in the liver.[10] Titration is much more complex than through inhalation. Common preparations involve blending with butter, to create Cannabutter that is used in preparing Brownies, Fudge, Cookies, Ganja Goo Balls or Space Cakes. However there are two preparations that do not contain butter in them and therefore fall into a slightly different category. These are the Leary biscuit and Nutella biscuit which require less preparation than more "conventional" recipies. Infusion in drinks containing milk and flavoring herbs is also possible, and more common in India.
Hollowed-out gumballs filled with the drug, wrapped and distributed labeled as Greenades, were identified in 2006 as being used by high school students in the United States. [11]
As with other drugs that are taken orally, it is sometimes customary to fast before taking the drug to increase the effect, possibly because an empty stomach will absorb the drug faster so it 'hits' stronger. However, some people do eat before consuming the drug because eating it on an empty stomach makes them feel sick. Still, time to effect onset is an hour or sometimes more, as opposed to smoking, where effects can be almost immediate.
Some people have tried to consume cannabis as a tea. THC is lipophilic and not particularly water soluble, with a solubility of less than a few milligrams per litre, not enough to make an effective tea. Water-based infusion is generally considered to be grossly inefficient. Some people have found a cost-efficient way around this, utilizing stems and less potent leaves as the tea-medium. Brewing a large quantity of stems, and shake, produces a tea that carries the stem taste, and delivers a mild body buzz. This has led to many pot smokers to brew Stem tea.
The seeds of the plant, high in protein and fatty acids, are appreciated by many species of birds. Many countries, including the United States, make the possession of viable cannabis seeds illegal[12], although they can be openly bought and sold legally in much of Europe, including the UK.
With a vaporizer, cannabis can be heated to a temperature of about 365 °F (185 °C), at which the active ingredients are released into gaseous form with little or no burning of the plant material. With this method, the user does not inhale as many (or any) toxic chemicals depending on the quality of the vaporizer. Scientific studies by MAPS/NORML have yielded varied results on the effectiveness of vaporizing as a method of cannabis consumption. One particular study by MAPS/NORML found 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor.[13] However, an older study by MAPS/NORML showed minimal reduction of toxins.[14] Some users claim to experience subtly different effects when using cannabis in this way, and others claim to experience a far more intense effect from a smaller amount of cannabis. In addition, users note an improved ability to distinguish subtle characteristics of flavor and aroma, in absence of lighter gas fumes or burnt matter. Currently, a wide range of manufactured herbal vaporizers exist on the market, which greatly vary in constructed materials, style, efficiency, and price. Some users use simplified blown-glass tubes in such a manner that the heat source does not directly contact the plant matter. Still, others choose to make them out of an empty lightbulb, a plastic bottle cap, and a straw. Attempting to make a vaporizor this way can be dangerous, as many lightbulbs are coated with a chemical on the inside of the glass, and the glass can't take prolonged exposure to the heat source
Main article: Knifers
Hot-knifing, blasting or doing blades is a process in which the tips of two knives are heated to a very high temperature, often by inserting them into the heating elements of a stove. The cannabis is then pressed between the heated knife-tips, rapidly combusting it. The vaporized cannabis is often funneled into the mouth of the smoker through the use of a plastic bottle-top, empty pen, or other hollow tube or funnel commonly known as a "hooter". In New Zealand and Australia, this is also known as "spots". A modified method of "spotting", uses knife blades heated to a much lower temperature, hot enough to vaporise the active ingredients, leaving the organic material scorched, rather than burned, thus removing potential harmful consequenses of the smoke itself
Immediate effects of consumption by humans
A dried flowered bud of the Cannabis sativa plant, in this case, Sweet Tooth #3, a fourth generation, third backcross to Sweet Pink Grapefruit motherThe nature and intensity of the immediate effects of cannabis consumption vary according to the dose, the species or hybridization of the source plant, the method of consumption, the user's mental and physical characteristics (such as possible tolerance), and the environment of consumption. This is sometimes referred to as set and setting. Smoking the same cannabis either in a different frame of mind (set) or in a different location (setting) can alter the effects or perception of the effects by the individual. Effects of cannabis consumption may be loosely classified as cognitive and physical. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the Cannabis sativa species tends to produce more of the cognitive or perceptual effects, while Cannabis indica tends to produce more of the physical effects.
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Active ingredients, metabolism, and method of activity
Of the approximately 400 different chemicals found in Cannabis, the main active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, THC). THC can degrade to other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol or cannabinol, which can make one feel sleepy and disoriented. Different cannabis products have different ratios of these and other cannabinoids. Depending on the ratio, the quality of the "high" will vary.
THC has an effect on the modulation of the immune system which may have an effect on malignant cells, but there is insufficient scientific study to determine whether this might promote or limit cancer. Cannabinoid receptors are also present in the human reproductive system, but there is insufficient scientific study to conclusively determine the effects of cannabis on reproduction. Mild allergies to cannabis may be possible in some members of the population.
A study has shown that holding cannabis smoke in one's lungs for longer periods of time does not conclusively increase THC's effects.[15].
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List of effects
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Cannabis has a broad spectrum of possible cognitive, behavioral, and physiological effects, the occurrence of which vary from user to user. Some of these are the intended effect desired by users, some may be considered desirable depending on the situation, and others are generally considered undesirable. Users of cannabis report that these kinds of effects are more often produced by the sativa species of Cannabis.
Cannabis also has effects that are predominantly physical or sensory, widely believed to be more common with the indica species.[citation needed]
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Cognitive effects
Varying amounts of paranoia and anxiety in some users[16]
Loss of coordination and distorted sense of time [17]
Impairment of short-term memory in some users
Auditory or visual hallucinations at high doses in some users
Induced sense of novelty
Increased awareness of sensation, including visual stimulation, music, taste, and sexual pleasure
Increased mental activity, like metacognition and introspective or meditative states of mind
Relaxation or stress reduction
Mild entheogenesis (e.g. per Rastafari movement users, more "Jah-Vibrations")
Many people report that cannabis strongly stimulates ideation and creativity
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Behavioral effects
Varying degrees of euphoria and feelings of well-being, ranging from feelings of general well-being to lengthy fits of laughter
Paramnesia, repetitiveness and ambiguation
Initial wakefulness followed by drowsiness and lassitude ("burnout")
Gain or loss of some desire for cohabitions, though this tends to be due to the user's outlook on drugs more than the effect of the drug itself
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Physiological effects
Anti-emetic properties (in moderate doses) [18]
Enhancement of many other drug effects (including those of alcohol, MDMA (Ecstasy), tobacco, heroin, cocaine)[18]
Lower intraocular pressure
Dilation of blood vessels (vasodilation),[19] resulting in:
Increased blood flow and heart rate (tachycardia)
Reddening or drying of eyes
Lower blood pressure while standing; higher blood pressure while sitting (note that this can lead to instances of orthostatic hypotension, also known as head rush)
Increased appetite (often referred to as "the munchies"), an effect of stimulation of the endocannabinoid system, which affects body weight, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia[20] Some reports also claim that the drug can function as an appetite suppressant, and laborers in some parts of Africa, the Caribbean and other parts of the world where hunger is a daily reality for many people are known to use the drug to alleviate hunger
Mild, temporary dry mouth (sometimes referred to as cottonmouth, cottonchops, dry-mouth, pasties, the drys (NZ), "the deserties" (AUS), or "the sandbox" (the republic of ZL and AL))
Dilation of alveoli (air sacs) in lungs, resulting in deeper respiration and increased coughing
Induces drowsiness (beneficial to sufferers of insomnia and sleep deprivation)
May cause numbness, especially in the legs and arms—usually only with high doses or first-time experiences
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Lethal dose
It is generally considered to be impossible to achieve a lethal overdose by smoking cannabis. According to the Merck Index, 12th edition, the LD50, the lethal dose for 50% of rats tested by inhalation, is 42 mg/kg of body weight. That is equivalent of a 165 lb (75 kg) man ingesting all of the THC in 21 one-gram cigarettes of high-potency (15% THC) cannabis buds at once, assuming no THC was lost through burning or exhalation. For oral consumption, the LD50 for rats is 1270 mg/kg and 730 mg/kg for males and females, respectively, equivalent to the THC in about a pound of 15% THC cannabis. Only with intravenous administration — an unheard-of method of use — may such a level be even theoretically possible.[21] Recently though, there have been a few incidents of THC-injections via syringes. All reported cases resulted in short-term paralysis and consuming states of euphoria.
There has only ever been one recorded verdict (although not ultimately upheld) of fatal overdose due to cannabis. In January 2004, Lee Maisey of Pembrokeshire, Wales was found dead. The coroner's report stated "Death due to probable cannabis toxicity". It had been reported that Maisey smoked about six joints a day. Mr. Maisey's blood contained 130 nanograms per milliliter (ng/ml) of the THC metabolite THC-COOH. However, the validity of the finding did not stand up well under review. As reported on 2004-01-28 in the Neue Züricher Zeitung, the Federal Health Ministry of Switzerland asked Dr. Rudolf Brenneisen, a professor at the department for clinical research at the University of Bern, to review the data of this case. Dr. Brenneisen said that the data of the toxicological analysis and collected by autopsy were "scanty and not conclusive" and that the conclusion "death by cannabis intoxication" was "not legitimate."[22] Additionally, Dr. Franjo Grotenhermen of the Nova-Institute in Cologne, Germany said: "A concentration of 130 ng/ml THC-COOH in blood is a moderate concentration, which may be observed some hours after the use of one or two joints. Heavy regular use of cannabis easily results in THC-COOH concentrations of above 500 ng/ml. Many people use much more cannabis than Mr. Maisey did, without any negative consequences."
4 ounces of cannabis[edit]
Health issues and the effects of cannabis
Main article: Health issues and the effects of cannabis
There is little conclusive scientific evidence about the long-term effects of human cannabis consumption.[23] The findings of many earlier studies purporting to demonstrate the effects of the drug are unreliable and generally regarded as junk science, as the studies were flawed, with strong bias and poor methodology. The most significant confounding factor is the use of other drugs, including alcohol and tobacco, by test subjects in conjunction with cannabis. When subjects using only cannabis were combined in the same sample with subjects using other drugs as well, researchers could not reach a conclusion as to whether their findings were caused by cannabis, other drugs or the interaction between them. In addition, research using cannabis is heavily restricted in many countries, making it difficult to get new studies funded or approved. Since there are so many different compounds in cannabis, it is difficult to predict or accurately measure its effects.
Some conclusions established with some degree of certainty, however, are that cannabis is less likely to cause emphysema or cancer than tobacco[24]; that sustained early-adolescent cannabis use among certain genetically predisposed individuals has an elevated correlation with certain mental illness outcomes, ranging from momentary minor psychotic episodes to clinical schizophrenia [25][26]; that cannabis use is generally higher among schizophrenics, but causality has not been established[27][28]; that it temporarily impairs motor skills; that it is unlikely to cause birth defects or developmental delays in the children of users,[29][30] and in a study done by the University of California Los Angeles in 2006, that even heavy marijuana smokers do not increase their risk for lung cancer.[31] This is most likely due to the active ingredient delta9-THC, which recent studies indicate could well fight cancer by causing cell death in aging and potentially cancerous cells in vitro [citation needed].
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Legality
A large scale anti-prohibition demonstration in Vancouver, Canada organized by the Marijuana Party and Marc Emery on April 20, 2005Main article: Legal issues of cannabis
Since the 20th Century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, use, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. Naturally, these laws impact adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed, and others where laws against its use, possession, or sale are not enforced. Many jurisdictions have also decriminalized possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation or a fine, rather than imprisonment. By effectively removing the user from the criminal justice system, decriminalization focuses more on those who traffic and sell the drug on the black market. However, this does not solve the problem of how a user will obtain the "legal amount" of marijuana, since buying or growing marijuana is still illegal. Increasingly, many jurisdictions also permit cannabis use for medicinal purposes. Some countries allow the sale through drug companies. However, simple possession can carry long jail sentences in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution.
U.S. Federal Bureau of Narcotics poster used in the late 1930s and 1940s.See also: Legality of cannabis in the United States
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Recent history
Under the name cannabis, 19th century medical practitioners sold the drug, (usually as a tincture) popularizing the word amongst English-speakers. It was rumoured to have been used to treat Queen Victoria's menstrual pains as her personal physician, Sir John Russell Reynolds, was a staunch supporter of the benefits of cannabis.[32] Cannabis was also openly available from shops in the US. By the end of the 19th century, its medicinal use began to fall as other drugs like aspirin took over its use as a pain reliever.
In 1894, the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission commissioned by the UK Secretary of State and the government of India, was instrumental in the decision not to criminalize the drug in those countries. The Report, which at over 500 pages remains one of the most complete collections of information on marijuana in existence, shows the stark contrast in the way that the American and British governments went about deciding whether to criminalize marijuana.[33]
The name marijuana (Mexican Spanish marihuana, mariguana) is associated almost exclusively with the plant's psychoactive use. The term is now well known in English largely due to the efforts of American drug prohibitionists during the 1920s and 1930s, who deliberately used a Mexican name for cannabis in order to turn the populace against the idea that it should be legal. (see 1937 Marijuana Tax Act)
Although cannabis has been used for its psychoactive effects since ancient times, it first became well known in the United States during the jazz music scene of the late 1920s and 1930s. Louis Armstrong became a prominent and life-long devotee. It was popular in the blues scene as well, and eventually became a prominent part of 1960s counterculture.
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Decriminalization and legalization
Main article: Legal issues of cannabis
In recent decades, a movement to decriminalize cannabis has arisen in several countries. This movement seeks to make simple possession of cannabis punishable by only confiscation or a fine, rather than prison. In the past several years, the movement has started to have some successes. These include Denver, Colorado legalizing possession of up to an ounce of cannabis[34], a broad coalition of political parties in Amsterdam, Netherlands unveiling a pilot program to allow farmers to legally grow it,[35] and Massachusetts voting in favor of a bill to decriminalize the possession of up to an ounce of marijuana[36]. Also, in Alaska, marijuana was decided legal for in-home, personal use under the Raven vs. State ruling in 1975. This ruling allowed up to four ounces of marijuana for these purposes. On July 17th, 2006, that amount was reduced to one ounce due to an "increase in potencey" since the Raven verdict. In 2001 in the United Kingdom, it was announced that cannabis would become a Class C drug, rather than a Class B, this change took effect in 2004 however this still means a jail sentence of up to 2 years for possession and 14 years for supplying. [37] The Government of Mexico voted to legalize the possession of cannabis under 5 grams on April 28, 2006. [38] However, as of May 3, 2006, Mexican President Vicente Fox has said that he will not sign this proposed law until Congress removes the parts that would decriminalize the possession of small quantities of drugs[39] and vetoed the bill on May 4, 2006,[40] sparking broad controversy over the bill.[41][42][43] In the early summer of 2006 Fox and the Mexican congress came to an agreement and legalized possession of small amounts (and also measured amounts of other drugs). On July 17th, 2006, Italian Social Solidarity Minister Paolo Ferrero, speaking of the urgent need for depenalising the consumption of light drugs, said that "a joint is less harmful than a litre of wine." [44]
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References
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Notes
^ Richard Rudgley (1999). The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age.
^ HEMP. In Encyclopædia Britannica (11). (1911). Retrieved on 2006-06-15.
^ "Cannabis compound benefits blood vessels", Nature (magazine), 2005-04-04.
^ "Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada", 2005-06-23.
^ Europe: Sativex Coming to England, Spain. Retrieved on 2006-03-25.
^ State Medical Marijuana Laws. Retrieved on 2006-04-12.
^ FindLaw U.S. v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers Cooperative. Retrieved on 2006-03-25.
^ Pacula, R. L. Chriqui, J. F. Reichmann, D. A. Terry-McElrath, Y. M. (2002). "State Medical Marijuana Laws: Understanding the Laws and their Limitations". Journal of Public Health Policy 23 (4): 413-439. ISSN 0197-5897.
^ United States Department of Health and Human Services (2004-09-09). Nation's Youth Turning Away from Marijuana, as Perceptions of Risk Rise; Most Adults with Substance Abuse Problems Are Employed. Press release. Retrieved on 2006-05-30.
^ Paulo Borini; Romeu Cardoso Guimarães; Sabrina Bicalho Borini (May 2004). "Possible hepatotoxicity of chronic marijuana usage". Sao Paulo Medical Journal 122 (3). DOI:10.1590/S1516-31802004000300007. Retrieved on 2006-05-02.
^ http://www.prweb.com/releases/2006/7/prweb414446.htm
^ Controlled Substances Act. 21 USCS § 801. United States Drug Enforcement Agency. Retrieved on November 4, 2005.
^ Gieringer, Dale; Joseph St. Laurent, Scott Goodrich. Cannabis Vaporizer Combines Efficient Delivery of THC with Effective Suppression of Pyrolytic Compounds. Retrieved on 2006-04-21.
^ Gieringer, Dale. Marijuana Water Pipe and Vaporizer Study. Retrieved on 2006-04-21.
^ Block RI, Farinpour R & Braverman K. (1992). "Acute effects of marijuana on cognition: relationships to chronic effects and smoking techniques". Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 43(3): 907 – 917.
^ Effects of Cannabis. Guide4Living. Retrieved on 2006-05-30.
^ Drugs and Human Performance Fact Sheets - Cannabis / Marijuana (D 9 - Tetrahydrocannabinol, THC). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Retrieved on 2006-06-08.
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Bibliography
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